Available technologies for remanufacturing, repurposing, and recycling lithium-ion batteries: an introduction

Abstract

Lithium-ion batteries that power electric vehicles (EVs) are discarded when their charging capacity drops to 70%�80% of its original level. For the sustainable integration of battery-operated EVs in the transportation sector, reclaiming any remaining economic value in end-of-life batteries is essential. Recycling coupled with reusing and remanufacturing can bring down the up-front cost of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Research suggests that reused and remanufactured batteries will be 30%�70% cheaper by 2025 and account for 26GWh of energy storage globally. To ensure a sustainable EV ecosystem, all three, i.e., reusing, remanufacturing, and recycling, must be performed in a closed loop. The economic value created depends on the cost-effective technologies available to reuse, remanufacture, and recycle LIBs. Most technologies for recycling end-of-life EV batteries can be broadly classified as hydrometallurgical, pyrometallurgical, and electrochemical processes, and these require existing knowledge about recycling. On the other hand, proprietary technologies like comprehensive battery testing supported by machine learning algorithms are being developed for reusing and remanufacturing. This has opened new avenues, particularly for remanufacturing end-of-life batteries for EVs and reusing them for stationary applications. Reusing and remanufacturing end-of-life EV batteries adds value to the overall EV ecosystem, but recycling is critical for the sustainable deployment of EV batteries. The large-scale integrated reuse, recycling, and remanufacturing technology within a country depends on resource availability, i.e., the technology, economics, and availability of end-of-life EV batteries. This chapter explores the economic, technological, and environmental perspectives of various technologies for reusing, remanufacturing, and recycling LIBs. Finally, the chapter concludes with the limitations of existing technologies and the road ahead. � 2022 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.